CLIMBING GEAR
HELMETS
A climber's helmet is called upon to reduce the chance of serious injury should the climber fall and strike his or her head, or be struck by an object falling from above. Because the types of impact anticipated are different from those associated with other activities, it is extremely important to understand that helmets designed for other pursuits are never appropriate for climbing. A bicycling helmet, for example, offers almost no protection from small objects falling great distances. A rock dislodged by a party above might easily penetrate a cycling helmet, as such helmets are not designed for that kind of protection. Similarly, climbing helmets may not be appropriate for non-climbing endeavor~.
When fitting a climbing helmet, choose a size that roughly corresponds to your head size, allowing room for a hat if cold-weather climbing is anticipated. Be cenain that you can feel your head is fully against the fixed cradle of criss-crossed webbing inside the shell, and adjust the girth of the internal band to fit snugly around your head, without too much play. Next, cinch up the chin strap and shake your head around a bit, to ensure that the helmet does not move about independent of your head.
Care of the helmet is important. Always protect the helmet from chemicals and contaminants, and inspect it often. Replace the helmet if it shows any unusual damage or if it has sustained a serious blow (visible or not).
HARNESSES
The climbing harness not only provides a point of attachment for the rope, but also serves to transfer weight (in a fall or while hanging) to the climber's hips, where the load can be sustained most comfortably and safely. Just knowinog how to tie in to a harness is not sufficient; if a harness is not fit and fastened securely, the entire protection system is compromised.
First, it is important that the climber read and understand all the information provided with the harness. All modern climbing harnesses will incorporate at least tWo major components: the swami belt and the legloops. When fitting the harness, it is extremely important that the swami belt is able to ride comfortably ~ the crest of the climber's hipbones. It should fit snugly around the narrowest part of the waist, and once buckled properly, it should be impossible to yank it down over the hips like a pair of gym shons. The main pan of the swami belt should not overlap itself too much, nor should there be less than 3 inches of webbing protruding from the properly-threaded buckle(s). The legloops should fit comfortably around the upper thighs, allowing enough space for heavier layers of clothing beneath if cold-weather climbing is anticipated.
Because so many different harness designs exist, the instructions provided by the manufacturer for each harness should be studied thoroughly. All buckles need to be threaded very specifically, and there is a particular method for tying in to the rope for each different harness. It is important that the climber understand which features of his
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or her harness are structurally critical, and which are associated with features added for convenience Get-tabs, gear loops, etc.).
While most climbers prefer to climb with only a sit harness, the VIAA recommends that a chest harness be used as well. A chest harness adds a measure of security and comfort by ensuring that the climber will not be suspended upside-down should, for instance, he
or she fall into a crevasse while wearing a heavy pack. The associated inconvenience (as when adding or shedding clothing layers) has rendered the chest harness less popular for rock climbers, but they are nevertheless available. It must be emphasized, however, that a chest harness must NEVER be worn without a sit harness.
As with most climbing gear, a climbing harness should never be used for any pwpose other than climbing, nor should one climb in any harness designed for some other purpose. It is also wise to protect the harness from serious abrasion, chemical contamination, and extreme temperatures.
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CLIMBING ROPES
The climbing rope is the climber's single most important piece of climbing equipment. All modem climbing ropes are made of synthetic fibers woven in a two-part "kernmantle" construction, where a woven sheath protects the inner core fibers. Ropes fall into several different categories.
First, it is important to distinguish the static ropes from the dynamic ropes. A static rope is designed to be used in caving and rescue situations, where very limited stretch is an advantage. Severe injury or worse could result if a climber were to use a static rope in a normal rock climbing situation. These ropes are not designed for any use that would require them to catch a falling climber, as they would not sufficiently dissipate the energy developed during the fall, but instead would transfer it directly to the climber.
Dynamic ropes, on the other hand, are designed to stretch a certain amount to help absorb the shock of a fall before it reaches the climber. The UIAA, an independent climbing equipment testing organization based in Geneva, ensures that all dynamic climbing ropes will stretch between 3% and 7% under an 80 kg load: not too little, not too much. Dynamic ropes have the capacity, however, to stretch as much as 60% under an extreme load, and that potential elongation is necessary to keep the maximum impact force rating as low as is reasonable.
The maximum impact force describes the ultimate shock that a falling lead climber feels when the rope catches his or her fall. Again, the UIAA makes certain that the impact force rating on any given rope remains within limits determined by the so-called "breaking strength" of the climber. The human pelvis can withstand about 3000 lbs. of force before it collapses, so the UIAA states that no rope with its seal of approval can impart more than 2400 lbs. of force in the worst-case scenario of a factor 2 fall (length of
fall is twice the distance represented by the available rope in the system).
In addition, the UIAA gives each rope a fall rating, based on the number of stan~ard test falls held in a controlled laboratory environment. While the actual fall rating of a rope has little direct bearing on its anticipated perfonnance in the field, it does offer the consumer a reference point from which to compare different ropes.
There are, of course, some dimensional concerns that the climber needs to consider when choosing a rope. As a rule, ropes are available in 45m, 5Om, and/or 55m lengths. Personal preference will dictate which length a climber will choose. Diameter, however,
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is a more complex issue. First, the climber must decide whether he or she anticipates climbing with single rope, double rope, or twin rope technique. Single ropes (look for a large, circled "1" on the tape at the rope's end) are designed to be climbed on with a single strand. They are available in IOmm, 1O.5mm, and Ilmm diameters.
Double ropes and twin ropes (marked on their ends with a "112") require climbers to employ two strands of rope between the members of the party. While there are advantages and disadvantages inherent in the different techniques, it is most important that climbers use the correct type and number of ropes for the given situation. Never should any rope marked with a "112" be used by itself in any climbing situation. Twin ropes come in 8mm and 8.5mm diameters, and the two strands in the system should never be separated. Half-ropes (to be used in a double rope system) come in 8.5mm and 9mm diameters. In all cases, the ropes with the smaller diameters will not be as durable, nor will they be as resistant to being cut over an edge. They will, however, be lighter, and perhaps more supple.
Many ropes are funher distinguished as being "dry" ropes, which implies that they have been treated in some way to reduce the problems associated with absorbing excess water when climbing in wet conditions. The dry treatment also enhances a rope's abrasion resistance, and is especially helpful in winter conditions, when other ropes might freeze through to the core.
Care of the Rope:
This is primarily a case of common sense; general respect is the key.
It should go without saying that climbing ropes are to be used only for climbing and rappelling, and are NOT appropriate for any other uses (nor should any other type of rope be used for climbing).
The fIrst rule of mountaineering is: don't step on the rope! Why? Because in daily use, din will penetrate the core of the rope through the sheath, and when it is stepped on, the din will grind away at the fibers of the core. One step will not destroy the rope, but each step can weaken it, and it makes no sense to subject your rope to anything that might weaken it. As far as solvents are concerned, if in doubt, keep your rope clear of them. The Bluewater catalogue lists the following materials to be avoided: acids, alkalies, oxidizing agents, bleaching compounds. However, the same source says the following materials DO NOT appreciably affect nylon: salt, acetone, benzene, chlorofonn, freon, GASOLINE, kerosene, lard, mineral oil, paint, and pine oil. Banery acid and gooey
jumper cables are among your rope's worst enemies, so keep them away.
Ultra-violet radiation also slowly degrades the rope. Certainly you needn't limit all your climbing to nighttime, but don't store the rope on the sundeck all year either.
When it comes to age, climbers should be aware that even an unused rope weakens over the years, so one must not keep an old rope lying around for sentimental reasons.
Heat also can weaken a rope. In fact, nylon begins to lose strength at relatively low temperatures, (140°F) so keep ropes clear of heat sources, and don't dry them in the dryer or on a radiator or whatever.
And what about heat generated by friction? This is a big deal with high-speed rappellers, . so watch for it: no gloves allowed (flesh burns first, so it's a good guide), and also watch out for speedy lowers, topropes, etc.
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In addition, friction is developed whenever nylon runs over nylon. A rope running over another rope or over a piece of webbing can cut through with very little effort.
Sharp edges? The climbing rope won't break under normal use, but it can be cut, so pad
any places where the rope must run over a sharp edge.
Furthermore, the particular knots we choose for a given situation are of critical importance. Because ropes are weakened whenever they are bent, we are careful to choose knots that bend the rope as little as possible, and hence weaken the rope as little as possible.
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Knots to know
1. Overhand: Seldom used for rope, but good to recognize
2. Figure-8: It is stronger than an overhand knot and is easier to untie after being loaded. This is the strongest knot you can use to tie in with and is the safest way to attach yourself to the rope.
3. Keeper Knot: It stays tied longer, keeps track of end. It is, in effect, one-half of a Double Fisherman's knot.
4. Double Fisherman's: For joining ends (same or different diameters)
5. Water Knot/Ring Bend: This is the knot for joining flat webbing into a loop.
Attachments to be avoided
1. The Bowline.
2. Clipping the rope into a carabiner (even a screwgate) on the harness
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SLINGS
Slings or runners are made of woven tubular or solid webbing that is made into a loop by either sewing or tying the ends together. They come in two basic widths: 1" or 11/16". These are made into four foot slings (two foot loops) which are carried over your head and shoulder, or shorter slings (quickdraws), which are carried on carabiners with your equipment.
Slings are used in nearly every aspect of climbing. They are used to connect pieces of hardware together to make a belay anchor. They are used to provide a longer, more flexible link between the rope and a climber's protection in the rock, thereby reducing rope drag while enhancing the security of the protection. They make it easier to use trees and rocks as anchors. They are used as less-expensive alternatives to abandoning carabiners at existing rappel anchors when retreating from a climb.
A climber can fashion slings from webbing purchased off the spool, or buy them already sewn into loops. Because there are advantages and disadvantages to both types, most climbers will carry some of each. The tied slings are less expensive, and sport the versatility inherent in being able to be untied, threaded through something, and retied. The sewn slings are more expensive, but are less bulky and stronger (a bar-tacked joint is stronger than the webbing itself, but a knot - because it bends - will always be weaker).
While most slings are made of woven nylon fibers, EMS also carries slings woven from nylon fibers mixed with Spectra fibers. These Spectra slings are stronger and more durable, but they are more expensive.
Round cordage, 5.5mm - 9mm in diameter, can be used as a sling or quickdraw. It is also used to sling some of the artificial chockstones we carry. It can be made of Perl on (the standard-use cordage), Kevlar (which is much stronger but much more expensive), or Spectra (which is strong and durable).
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All slings and cordage must be treated with the same precautions as the rope. Slings that are found on the cliff should be suspect, especially if they have been used as rappel anchors through which the rappel rope has been pulled. These retreat slings often will have been burned and weakened by the friction generated during rope retrieval.
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CARABINERS
Another fundamental piece of climbing hardware is the carabiner. These aluminum alloy snap-links have a multitude of uses in a climber's chain of protection. Essentially, carabiners offer a sttong, quick, and versatile means of connecting various components of the protection system to one another, without resoning to knots.
Typically, a climber may carry 25 to 30 carabiners on his or her rack when heading off for a climb. Some are used to clip gear to the harness or gear sling to keep the hardware soned and accessible, some will connect the climber to his or her anchor on the cliff, some will link the rope to the protection placed in the rock, and so on. It often seems that one cannot have too many carabiners, so varied are their uses.
There exists a variety of different carabiners available to climbers, and naturally, there are advantages and disadvantages to all of them. One must determine whether the anticipated use of the carabiner is of a "general purpose" nature, or if it will be called upon to perform in some specialized manner. One would place the oval and D-shaped
carabiners in the former category, as their appropriate applications are not as limited as some of the other designs. While D-shaped carabiners tend to be slightly stronger than ovals, most climbers prefer to carry both types. Situations occasionally arise when one shape works better than the other, but D's and ovals are nearly interchangable.
On the other hand, the asymmenical and ultra-lightweight carabiners are designed to be used in a very specific fashion, and they sacrifice some versatility as a result. Proper instruction in their use is essential, as failure can result if such a carabiner is used improperly. Basically, if a climber is uncenain as to the appropriate use of, say, a Quicksilver or Lowe 33 carabiner, then their purchase should be discouraged. The advantages these carabiners offer, such as lighter weight or wider gate openings, are often balanced with the disadvantages of higher price and specificity of application. A beginner should not stan their rack with any lightWeight carabiners. In addition, in winter, the size of these lightweight carabiners in a disadvantage. Handling them with gloves or mittens can be a problem due to their small size.
Locking carabiners are also available, and most climbers will carry one or more of these. The lock can offer increased protection from accidental unclipping, but they are no guarantee of total carabiner security. In the winter, locking carabiners will sometimes freeze up (locked or unlocked), and that situation can become a real problem. Therefore, like most gear, the use of locking carabiners can offer both advantages and disadvantages. They do not represent the solution to all carabiner problems, but they boast benefits that an experienced climber can successfully exploit.
A few of the locking carabiners even have spring-loaded locking mechanisms. While they are designed to automatically lock when the gate is released, in some situations, they can come unlocked if the rope runs against the locking mechanism, or if that mechanism rubs against the rock.
The oval and D-shaped locking carabiners are - once locked - often sttonger than their non-locking counterparts, but the Munter Hitch (HMS) or pear-shaped locking carabiners
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do not share that advantage. They are designed for a specific belaying system, and may not be appropriate for every other use. Similarly, the steel rescue carabiners are best left to those trained in rescue work, where their excessive weight is not such an issue. And, it should go without saying that key chain 'biners and Versa-links are not for climbing. Ever. In fact, they should not even be referred to as carabiners.
Regardless of design or brand, any carabiner can be subjected to conditions that compromise its security. The rated strength of a carabiner assumes that an undamaged sample is loaded in a specific manner: a steady pull is applied along the major axis (Le. it is aligned the long way) with the gate closed. If, in the field, a carabiner is required to sustain a load under any circumstances other than those outlined above, it may fail well below the rating stamped on the frame. For example, a typical D-shaped carabiner rated at 2300 kg (5060 Ibs.) for a major axis load may hold only 600 kg (1320 Ibs.) with its gate open, or along its minor axis (pulled the shon way, against the gate). That reflects a 74% loss in carabiner strength. Some of the newest carabiners on the market address the issue of open gate strength and will have greater open gate strength.
It is also important to avoid loading a carabiner over an edge (like breaking a pencil), linking more than two carabiners together (a chain can twist over itself and unclip), or employing carabiners of unknown history or ones that have been damaged. Of course, no carabiner sold by EMS is appropriate for any use other than climbing, rappelling, and rescue work.
A. MULTI-PURPOSE
(#1 OVAL CARABINER)
	B. SPECIAUZED
('2 STANDARD D)
(#3 LOCKING D) .
(114 UGHT-WEIGHT D)
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(16 HMS LOCKING)
('5 ASSYMETRlCAL)
(117 TWIST LOCK)
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PROTECTION
The term "protection" refers to the gear employed by a climber - in conjunction with the rope, helmet, harness, runners, and carabiners- to limit the severity of a fall, For a typical multi-pitch rock climb, the climber will need a selection of hardware to protect himself or herself, and possess the knowledge and experience to use it properly. This protection allows the climber to take advantage of a variety of weaknesses in the rock, and when combined with natural protection (trees, rock horns, etc.) and fixed protection (pitons and bolts driven by previous climbers), can bring the inherent risk in climbing to at least a manageable level.
Several of the items carried by EMS fall into the category of "artificial chockstones": they are based on the concept of a rock, or chockstone, securely wedged in a tapering crack, that early climbers would encounter and loop with cord to provide themselves with a temporary anchor on the cliff. Rather than hoping to find such a feature, the modern climber brings along manufactured, pre-threaded versions of the same thing. They are quick, light, versatile, and environmentally sound - they don't scar the rock like a piton or bolt. Just as cracks and other features on the cliff vary, so must the designs of the gear meant to exploit those cracks and features.
The simplest category of protection is the wedge-shaped variety. There are a number of pieces of gear available that rely on a tapered nut jamming into a consttiction in a crack. These nuts come in a range of sizes, shapes, and materials, but all share a simplicity and predictability that make them very popular. Like most protection, their security is very
directional in nature, and they are only as strong as the rock in which they are placed. All require a downward taper in the crack for placemenL
WEDGING NUT

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CONSTANT ANGLE CAM
PASSIVE CAMMING
PASSWE CAMMING
HEXENTRIC
For cracks that are parallel-sided, one must look beyond the wedgeshaped nuts, as they would not jam securely. Instead, the climber has hexes and Tri-cams to do the job. The action of loading these pieces causes them to pivot along an arc that increases their aspect in relation to the width of the crack. In effect, they get bigger and set themselves tighter in the rock the more you pull on them. These can be described as passive camming nuts.
If the crack is parallel or flares downward, then one of the springloaded camming devices might be most appropriate. Again, there are several variations on the design available, but all employ the
use of constant-angle cams that transfer the force of a fall
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outward from the cam axle, against the walls of the crack. It is imponant to align the SLCD's stem in the anticipated direction of force, and to ensure that the cams are neither over- nor under-compressed. As with other forms of climbing protection, SLCDs are far from foolproof, and may fail if used improperly. Expert instruction in their use is essential. These can be described as active camming nuts.
There also exist a number of other options in the realm of climbing protection. Most of the gear available constitutes variations on the fundamental principles illustrated by the gear described above. For example, the Lowe-balls that have arrived on the market rely on the wedging principle, but they incorporate a hemisphere that floats in a groove in the wedge, thereby allowing greater adaptability to the specific shapes of small cracks. As they fall into the category of "small-crack protection", the climber should understand that the security represented by such gear is a relative issue: by definition, there is likely to be an increased chance of failure associated with anything so small. Again, expert instruction must be pursued in connection with the use of this gear.
RAPPEL DEVICES, BELAY DEVICES, ASCENDERS
In addition to the gear used to connect the rope to the rock, most climbers will also employ one or more devices to aid in rappelling down the cliff, climbing back up the rope, and/or belaying their partners. All of these tasks can be accomplished with ordinary slings and carabiners, but most modern climbers appreciate the advantages that certain specialized gear can offer. One must be careful, however, to use the various equipment exactly as the manufacturer suggests, and not attempt to extend its application beyond what is intended.
A. A FIGURE ","
B.TUBER
C. ASCENDER ON A ROPE	D. BELAY PLATE
When a climber wishes to rappel, or descend by sliding down a rope, it is necessary to employ some sort of friction device in order to control that descent. When friction is used to control the speed of a rappel, the heat generated must be kept to a minimum, or dissipated before it can cause injury to either the climber or the rope. While the forces generated on a rappel do not ordinarily even approach those anticipated during a leader fall, it is easy to underestimate the serious effect that heat and friction can have on yourself or your gear.
Traditionally, descenders have been bulky, heavy items that didn't skimp on material to ensure that heat dissipation would not be such a problem. However, as the current trend toward lighter gear continues, some manufacturers have met that demand with smaller, more compact rappel devices. Climbers need to remain aware, therefore, that the speed of their
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rappel needs to be limited even more severely if they choose a lighter-weight descender.
Another concern involves descenders that are called upon to double as belay devices.
Only when the manufacturer specifically states that a particular descender is suitable for belaying should a climber use it for that purpose.
Belay devices, on the other hand, are designed primarily for use by the belayer to help protect the climber. Essentially, they allow the belayer to carefully control the amount of rope allowed to enter the system, and also offer him or her the mechanical advantage necessary to catch a fall on the rope. Increased specificity in climbing gear and techniques has forced the industry to respond by producing equally specific belay devices, so the climber must understand that each belay device is not necessarily appropriate for each climbing situation. For example, the number of ropes employed on a particular climb, and their diameters, has a great influence on the climber's selection of a particular device. In addition, not all belay devices can be used for rappelling as well.
Mechanical ascenders are also designed with specific purposes in mind: primarily, they are meant to be used to climb up a rope. Under no circwnstances should an ascender be employed as a self-belay device, or in any other situation where it might be called upon to stop a falling climber. The requirements for the safe use of any ascender are nwnerous and varied, and one should not attempt to use an ascender without first receiving expen instruction.
Gear used for rappelling, belaying, and ascending seems to hold the most potential for misuse, and such misuse could be extremely dangerous. It cannot be over-stressed that no climber should ever try to use a device with which he or she is not familiar, nor use one for any purpose other than the purpose specified by the manufacturer.
CLIMBING SHOES
Climbing without climbing shoes would be like ice skating without ice skates. They are necessary for all climbers, regardless of ability. Most shoes on the market fall into one of three basic categories: entry-level shoes, all-purpose shoes, and specialized-use shoes.
Fit is critical to the performance of any rock shoe. As one would suspect, different shoes produced by different manufacturers using different materials and designs will fit people differently. A shoe that may be a perfect fit for you may not fit .someone else at all, and hence not perform well, regardless of design. To achieve a proper fit, the shoe must leave no additional space in the front section. If the climber's toes do not touch the front of the shoe, it is too large. A properly-fitting shoe should fit like a sock.
Climbing shoes that fall into the entry-level category are designed to fit a little more comfortably, and to "edge" and "smear" well. A major advantage of this type of shoe is usually its price. They are meant to be less expensive than most other shoes. Climbing "slippers" are not a good choice for the entry-level climber, as they offer very little suppon and will actually make the climbing more difficult.
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